Figure drawing

Figure drawing by Leonardo da Vinci

A figure drawing is a drawing of the human form in any of its various shapes and postures using any of the drawing media. The term can also refer to the act of producing such a drawing. The degree of representation may range from highly detailed, anatomically correct renderings to loose and expressive sketches. A life drawing is a drawing of the human figure, traditionally nude, from observation of a live model. Creating life drawings, or life studies, in a life class, has been since the Renaissance been a large element in the traditional training of artists in the Western world.

A figure drawing may be a composed work of art or a figure study done in preparation for a more finished work such as a painting.[1]: Ch. 8 Figure drawing is arguably the most difficult subject an artist commonly encounters, and entire courses are dedicated to the subject. The human figure is one of the most enduring themes in the visual arts, and the human figure can be the basis of portraiture, illustration, sculpture, medical illustration, and other fields.

Approaches

Artists take a variety of approaches to drawing the human figure. They may draw from live models or from photographs,[2] from skeletal models, or from memory and imagination. Most instruction focuses on the use of models in "life drawing" courses. The use of photographic reference—although common since the development of photography—is often criticized or discouraged for its tendency to produce "flat" images that fail to capture the dynamic aspects of the subject. Drawing from imagination is often lauded for the expressiveness it encourages, and criticized for the inaccuracies introduced by the artist's lack of knowledge or limited memory in visualizing the human figure; the experience of the artist with other methods has a large influence on the effectiveness of this approach.

In developing the image, some artists focus on the shapes created by the interplay of light and dark values on the surfaces of the body. Others take an anatomical approach, beginning by approximating the internal skeleton of the figure, overlaying the internal organs and musculature, and covering those shapes with the skin, and finally (if applicable) clothing; study of human internal anatomy is usually involved in this technique. Another approach is to loosely construct the body out of geometric shapes, e.g., a sphere for the cranium, a cylinder for the torso, etc. then refine those shapes to more closely resemble the human form.

For those working without visual reference (or as a means of checking one's work), proportions commonly recommended in figure drawing are:[3]

  • An average person is generally 7-and-a-half heads tall (including the head). This can be illustrated to students in the classroom using paper plates to visually demonstrate the length of their bodies.
  • An ideal figure, used for an impression of nobility or grace, is drawn at 8 heads tall.
  • A heroic figure used in the depiction of gods and superheroes is eight-and-a-half heads tall. Most of the additional length comes from a bigger chest and longer legs.

These proportions are most useful for a standing model. Poses which introduce foreshortening of various body parts will cause them to differ.

Media

Sitting woman, drawing in black crayon, school of Rembrandt (17th century)

The French Salon in the 19th century recommended the use of Conté crayons, which are sticks of wax, oil and pigment, combined with specially formulated paper. Erasure was not permitted; instead, the artist was expected to describe the figure in light strokes before making darker, more visible marks.

Figure drawing by Lovis Corinth. Before 1925

A popular modern technique is the use of a charcoal stick, prepared from special vines, and a rougher form of paper. The charcoal adheres loosely to the paper, allowing very easy erasure, but the final drawing can be preserved using a spray-on "fixative" to keep the charcoal from rubbing off. Harder compressed charcoal can produce a more deliberate and precise effect, and graduated tones can be produced by smudging with the fingers or with a cylindrical paper tool called a stump.

흑연연연필은 그림 그리기에도 흔히 사용된다. 이를 위해 아티스트의 연필은 9B(매우 부드러움)부터 1B(중간 소프트)까지, 1H(중간 하드)부터 9H(매우 단단함)까지 다양한 제형으로 판매된다. 숯처럼 그루터기를 이용해 지우고 조작할 수 있다.

잉크는 또 다른 대중 매체다. 화가는 종종 흑연 연필로 그림을 스케치하거나 윤곽을 그린 다음, 펜이나 붓으로 최종 선 작업을 하고, 잉크로 영구적인 잉크로 한다. 잉크는 물로 희석되어 그라데이션이 발생할 수 있는데, 이것은 잉크 워시라고 불리는 기술이다. 펜슬 자국은 잉크를 바른 후에 지워지거나, 어두운 잉크가 잉크를 압도하여 제자리에 놓아둘 수 있다.

일부 예술가들은 연필 스케치 준비 없이 잉크로 직접 그림을 그리기도 하는데, 이는 실수를 바로잡을 수 있는 능력을 제한함에도 불구하고 이 방법이 갖는 자발성을 선호한다. 마티스는 이런 방식으로 활동한 것으로 알려진 화가다.

바로크·로코코 시대의 와트토와 다른 17~18세기 예술가들이 선호하는 방법은 흰색과 검은색의 중간쯤 되는 색조의 땅에서부터 시작하여 펜과 잉크나 "크레이온"을 사용하여 검정색과 하이라이트로 색조를 더하는 것이었다.

역사

Drawing of a man sitting with crossed legs
아니베일 카라치의 누드 스터디

인간의 모습은 선사시대부터 그림의 소재가 되어 왔다. 고미술가들의 작업실습은 대체로 추측의 문제지만, 누드모델을 자주 그리고 본떠서 만든다는 것은 작품의 해부학적 세련됨이 시사하는 바가 크다. 플리니와 관련된 일화는 Zeuxis가 이상적인 이미지를 그리기 위해 그가 결합할 다섯 가지 특징을 선택하기 전에 어떻게 Argigentum의 젊은 여성들을 벌거벗고 검토했는지를 묘사한다.[4] 중세 화가의 작업장에서 누드모델을 사용한 것은 세니노 세니니의 저술에 함축되어 있으며, 빌라드 드 호네쿠르의 필사본은 삶의 스케치가 13세기에 확립된 관행이었음을 확인시켜 준다.[4] 1580년대 볼로냐에서 아카데미아 데글리 잉캄미나티를 개교한 카라치는 삶을 중심 규율을 그리게 함으로써 후기 예술학교의 패턴을 설정했다.[5] 훈련 과정은 판화를 베끼는 것으로 시작되었고, 이후 석고 주물에서 그림을 그리는 것으로 진행되었고, 그 후 학생들은 라이브 모델에서 그림을 그리는 훈련을 받았다.

In the late 18th century, students in Jacques-Louis David's studio followed a rigorous program of instruction. Mastery in drawing was considered a prerequisite to painting. For about six hours each day, students drew from a model who remained in the same pose for one week.[6] "Eighteenth-century drawings, like that attributed to Jacques-Louis David, were usually executed on tinted paper in red or black chalk with white highlights and a darkened ground. The models' poses tended to be active: standing figures seem about to stir and even seated figures gesticulate dramatically. Close observation of the model's body was secondary to the rendering of his gesture, and many drawings - consistent with academic theory - seem to present a representative figure rather than a specific body or face. In comparison, academies produced in the nineteenth century [...] were typically executed in black chalk or charcoal on white paper and are meticulous depictions of the particularities and idiosyncrasies of the body of the live model. Evidence of the artist's hand is minimized and, although reclining or seated poses are rare, even standing poses are comparatively static..."[7] Before the late 19th century, women were generally not admitted to figure drawing classes.[8][9]

Academy figure

Further information: Academic art

An academy figure is a carefully executed drawing or painting of the nude human body, typically at half life size, completed as an exercise in an art school or academy.[10]

Women artists

Historical accounts reveal that nude models for aspiring female artists were largely unavailable. Women were barred from certain institutions because it was considered improper and possibly even dangerous for them to study from nude models.[9] Though men were given access to both male and female nudes, women were confined to learning anatomy from casts and models. It was not until 1893 that female students were allowed access to life drawing at the Royal Academy in London,[11] and even then the model was required to be partially draped.[12]

The limited access to nude figures impeded the careers and development of female artists. The most prestigious forms of painting required in-depth knowledge of anatomy that was systematically denied to women,[12] who were thereby relegated to less-regarded forms of painting such as genre, still life, landscape and portraiture. In Linda Nochlin’s essay "Why have There Been No Great Women Artists" she identifies the restricted access that women had to nude figure drawing as a historically significant barrier to women's artistic development.[12]

Contemporary studio instruction

Figure drawing instruction is an element of most fine art and illustration programs. Academies of fine art in Italy have a scuola libera del nudo ("free school of the nude") which forms part of the degree program but is also open to outside students.[13] In a typical figure drawing studio classroom, the students sit around a model either in a semicircle or a full circle. No two students have exactly the same view, thus their drawing will reflect the perspective of the artist's unique location relative to the model. The model often poses on a stand, to enable students to more easily find an unobstructed view. Depending on the type of pose, furniture and/or props may be used. These are typically included in the drawing, to the extent that they are visible to the artist. However, backgrounds are commonly ignored unless the objective is to learn about placement of figures in an environment. Individual models are most common, but multiple models may be used in more advanced classes. Many studios are equipped to allow a variety of lighting arrangements.

When taught at the college level, figure drawing models are often (but not always) nude (aside from small jewelry, props or other inconspicuous items). While posing, the model is usually requested to remain perfectly still. Because of the difficulty of doing this for an extended period of time, periodic breaks for the model to rest and/or stretch are usually included in longer sessions and for more difficult poses.

At the beginning of a figure drawing session, the model is often requested to make a series of brief poses in rapid succession. These are called gesture poses, and are typically one to three minutes each. Gesture drawing is a warm-up exercise for many artists, although some artists sketch out the gesture as the first step in every figure drawing. These broad strokes are not just done by the flick of a wrist, but by using the whole arm to capture the motion of the model. It also helps to keep the artist focused on the model instead of the paper. When it comes to the human body, artists are painfully critical; the proportions of a still life do not have to be drawn perfectly to look authentic, but even the slightest error in human proportions will be easily detected.

Modern and contemporary artists may choose to exaggerate or distort proportions to emphasise the gesture or perceived mood of the models' pose. The outcomes can be regarded as a finished artwork, expressing both the subject, the observational, emotional and mark making response to the artists figure drawing experience.

Anatomy is only the first level of concern in life classes. Figure-ground relationships and other aspects of composition are also considered. Balance of a composition becomes more crucial and therefore more understood through life drawing. The artist's kinesthetic response to the pose and how this is conveyed through a choice of art media is a more advanced concern. Since the purpose of figure drawing classes is to learn how to draw humans of all kinds, male and female models of all ages, shapes, and ethnicities are usually sought, rather than selecting only beautiful models or those with "ideal" figures. Some instructors specifically seek to avoid the sort of models preferred by fashion photographers, seeking more "realistic" examples and to avoid any implication of sexual objectification. Instructors may also favor models of particular body types based on the unique contours or surface textures they provide. The variety of models hired may be limited by the need for them to hold a pose for extended periods (eliminating restless children and frail older persons), and concerns of modesty and legality when models pose nude (restricting the use of minors).

참고 항목

참조

  1. ^ Berry, William A. (1977). Drawing the Human Form: A Guide to Drawing from Life. New York: Van Nortrand Reinhold Co. ISBN 0-442-20717-4.
  2. ^ Maureen Johnson & Douglas Johnson (2006). Art Models: Life Nudes for Drawing, Painting, and Sculpting. Live Model Books. ISBN 978-0976457329.
  3. ^ Devin Larsen (January 19, 2014). "Standard proportions of the human body". makingcomics.com. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
  4. ^ a b 엄밀히 말하면 1974년 페이지 6.
  5. ^ 엄밀히 말하면 1974년, 페이지 7.
  6. ^ 엄밀히 말하면 1974년, 페이지 8.
  7. ^ S. 월러, 모델의 발명: 파리의 예술가들과 모델들, 1830-1870. 2016, P. 5.
  8. ^ 엄밀히 말하면 1974년, 페이지 9.
  9. ^ a b Myers, Nicole. "Women Artists in Nineteenth–Century France". Metropolitan Museum of Art.
  10. ^ Chilvers, Ian, ed. (2015). The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists. Oxford University Press.
  11. ^ Levin, Kim (November 2007). "Top Ten ARTnews Stories: Exposing the Hidden 'He'". ArtNews.
  12. ^ a b c Nochlin, Linda. "Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?" (PDF). Department of Art History, University of Concordia.
  13. ^ 매기올리(2013년).코디스 델레 레기 델라 스쿠올라, 페이지 829–830. ISBN 8838778639(이탈리아어)

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