Infallibility

Look up infallibility in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Infallibility refers to an inability to be wrong. It can be applied within a specific domain, or it can be used as a more general adjective. The term has significance in both epistemology and theology, and its meaning and significance in both fields is the subject of continued debate.

In philosophy

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Epistemology, a branch of philosophy, is concerned with the question of what, if anything, humans can know. The answer to the issue of whether or not a human can be infallible depends on the philosophical school.

• Advocates of philosophical skepticism claim that one cannot know anything with certainty, much less be infallible.
• Infallibilists hold that knowledge requires absolute certainty, in the sense that if one knows that something is true, it is impossible that it could have turned out to be false.
• Advocates of subjectivism claim that there is no objective reality or truth, and therefore anyone can be considered infallible, since whatever is within a person's consciousness is considered the real and the true.
• Advocates of reason and rationality claim that one can gain certainty of knowledge, through a process of extreme refinement measures unlikely to be perfected enough for someone to assurably say "certainty of this knowledge is absolute", yet also assume by chance that one could land on the objective without the knowledge being confidently described as "universally certain", thus as a result, advocates tend to avoid this altogether and instead rely upon Occam's Razor as a suitable means for obtaining knowledge.

In theology

Christianity

The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church defines infallibility as "Inability to err in teaching revealed truth".^[1] Catholic and Eastern Orthodox theology claim that the Church is infallible, but disagree as to where infallibility exists, whether in doctrines, scripture, or church authorities.

In Catholic theology, Jesus, who is the Truth, is infallible,^[2] but only a special act of teaching by the church's bishops may properly be called "infallible". According to the First Vatican Council (1869–71) and as reaffirmed at Vatican II (1962–1965), the earthly head of the Catholic Church, the Pope, is infallible when speaking ex cathedra on matters of faith and morals (that is, when he explicitly intends to use his papal office to teach the whole Church definitively and irreformably on matters which deal directly with faith and morals).^[3] However, papal infallibility does not extend beyond such cases, thus making it possible for a Pope to sin and to be incorrect.^[4] Papal infallibility also belongs to the body of bishops as a whole, when, in doctrinal unity with the pope, they solemnly teach a doctrine as true.^[5]

In contrast, Protestant and non-denominational Christian churches believe that the Christian Church is indeed fallible, as evidenced by the requirement of Christ's sacrifice on the cross to pay for the sins of the world, including those of his Church, and that only God's word in scripture is infallible.^{[citation needed]} They also completely reject the Catholic claim regarding papal infallibility, citing not just scriptural reasons, but also the many times popes have contradicted each other and the history of mistakes committed by many popes throughout Roman Catholic Church history.^{[citation needed]}

Because of the complexity in defining infallibility, some Protestant and non-denominational views confuse papal infallibility with impeccability, as if the Pope were immune from sin.^[6] This is not the Catholic Church's doctrine, which concedes that Popes can sin and may even contradict one another's personal theological opinions.^[4] It is evident that the Pope can sin (which every Pope explicitly states in the Confiteor, and whenever he receives the Sacrament of Penance) and a Pope may even succumb to heresy, as suggested in the condemnation by the Third Council of Constantinople (13th and 16th session) which anathematized Pope Honorius I for supporting the heresy of Monothelitism, and which Pope John XXII admitted when he retracted his views on the Beatific vision.^[7]

Islam

Universal teachings

Islam teaches that the teachings and guidance by the Prophets with regard to bringing the message of the One true God is infallible. Islam also teaches that the Quran is an infallible text.^{[citation needed]}

Additional Shi'a teachings

In Shi'a theology, the belief is that the Ahl al-Bayt, including Muhammad, his daughter Fatima Zahra and Shi'a Imams are all infallible. It is believed that they are infallible in the sense that all statements or teachings made by them can be relied on to be certainly true, that all information believed by themselves is true, and that they have complete knowledge about right and wrong and never intend to disobey God. It is also held by Shi'as that there were 124,000 Prophets, beginning with Adam and ending with Muhammad - with all, including the last, being infallible in the same sense as the Ahl al-Bayt.^[8][9]

Judaism

The notion of infallibility in Judaism as it relates to the Tannaim and Amoraim of the Talmud, as well as the Rishonim, Achronim and modern day Gedolim is one surrounded by debate.

Some who reject infallibility cite the Talmud, Pesachim 94b:

The sages of Israel say: "The sphere (Earth) remains fixed and the constellations revolve," while the sages of the nations say: "The sphere revolves and the constellations remain fixed."...the sages of Israel say: "during the day the sun moves below the canopy (sky) and at night above the canopy," while the sages of the nations say: "during the day the sun moves below the canopy and at night below the ground." Rebbi said: "Their words seem more correct than ours..."

The words of the Mishnah are commented on by numerous commentators, and Judah Halevi argues that evidence mounts that the Geonim and Maimonides perceived that the sages of the Talmud "erred in a matter of astronomy".^[10] Maimonides wrote that the great sages are not expected to advocate positions perfectly in-line with modern science because they were "scholars of that generation," often basing their assessments of what "they learned from the scholars of the era."^[11]

그러나 하시디 전통에서는 무정체성이 레베와 관련하여 샤바드 전통에서 가르친다.^[12]

바이슈나비즘 (힌두교)

이 섹션은 검증을 위해 추가 인용구가 필요하다. 신뢰할 수 있는 출처에 인용문을 추가하여 이 기사를 개선할 수 있도록 도와주십시오. 비소싱 소재에 도전하여 제거할 수 있음(2017년 3월) (이 템플릿 메시지 제거 방법 및 시기 학습)

Bhgavad Gita에서 크리슈나는 아르주나에게 다음과 같이 설명한다(Bg 15.16~15.20).

실존의 두 부류가 있는데, 실존과 실존이다. 물질 세계에서는 모든 생명체가 잘못될 수 있고, 영적 세계에서는 모든 생명체를 불멸이라고 부른다. 이 두 사람 말고도 가장 살아 있는 인격인 슈프림 영혼, 불멸의 주님이 계시는데, 그는 세 세계에 들어가 그들을 유지하고 있다. 왜냐하면 나는 낙오자와 부적격자 모두를 초월하는 초월자이기 때문에, 그리고 내가 가장 위대하기 때문에, 나는 저 최고인자로서 세계와 베다 양쪽에서 모두 찬사를 받고 있기 때문이다. 나를 의심하지 않고 대머리 최고의 인격체로 아는 사람은 모든 것을 아는 사람이다. 그러므로 그는 바랴타의 아들 ㄱ) 미에게 온전히 헌신적인 봉사를 한다. 이것이 베딕 경전 중 가장 비밀스러운 부분인 오 죄없는 것, 곧 내가 지금 공개하는 것이다. 이것을 이해하는 사람은 지혜로워질 것이며, 그의 노력은 완벽함을 알게 될 것이다.^[13]

바하히 신앙

The Baháʼí Faith teaches the doctrine of the Most Great Infallibility (al-'ismah al-kubra) which applies to the Manifestations of God who founded the world's major religions, including Abraham, Krishna, Zoroaster, Moses, Buddha, Jesus Christ, Muhammad, as well as the Báb (1819–1850) and Baháʼu'lláh (1817–1892), the prophet-founder of the faith.

무적정권은 또한 신앙의 창시자의 아들인 ʻ두엘바하(1844~1921), 신앙의 수호자 쇼기 에펜디(1897~1957)와 신앙의 9인 최고 통치 기구인 유니버설 사법원에도까지 확장된다.

바하후엘라흐는 신앙의 중심 종교 전문인 키타브이아크다스에서 자신을 "가장 위대한 무적합성에 파트너가 없다"고 묘사하고 있다. 그는 후에 1885년경 아제르바이잔에서 온 신자에게 쓰여진 판본인 ʼIs͟harqart에 그 교리에 대해 상세히 설명한다.

ʻ 압두엘바하(Abdu'l-Baha)는 무차별성을 '신 선언의 본질적 무차별성'과 '가디언'과 '유니버설 정의의 집'의 '획득된 무차별성' 두 종류로 표현했다.^[14]

『압두엘바하』의 유언과 성서에서 그는 가디언과 만국 정의의 집 둘 다 "아브하 미인의 보호와 보호 아래, 엑설티드 원(Exalted One)의 지속적인 지도 아래"라고 묘사하고 있다.^[15]

그들이 결정하는 것은 무엇이든 신에 관한 것이다. Whoso obeyeth him not, neither obeyeth them, hath not obeyed God; whoso rebelleth against him and against them hath rebelled against God; whoso opposeth him hath opposed God; whoso contendeth with them hath contended with God; whoso disputeth with him hath disputed with God; whoso denieth him hath denied God; whoso disbelieveth in him hath disbeli하나님 안에서 피하여, 자기를 버리고, 자기를 버리고, 자기를 버리고, 자기를 버리고, 하나님을 외면하는 사람은, 진실로 일탈하고, 자신을 갈라놓고, 또 하나님을 외면하는 것이다. 하나님의 진노와 맹렬한 분노와 복수가 그에게 깃들기를!

쇼기 에펜디는 가디언의 무차별성의 한계를 다음과^[16] 같이 설명한다.

가디언의 부정성은 엄격히 명분과 가르침 해석과 관련된 문제에만 국한되어 있다; 그는 경제학, 과학 등과 같은 다른 과목에 대해 절대적인 권위자가 아니다. 그가 명분을 보호하기 위해 어떤 것이 필수적이라고 느낄 때, 비록 그것이 사람에게 개인적으로 영향을 미치는 것일지라도, 그는 복종해야 하지만, 그가 당신의 미래에 대한 이전의 편지에서 당신에게 준 것과 같은 충고를 할 때, 그것은 구속력이 없다. 당신이 원하는 대로 그것을 따르든 아니든 자유롭게 따를 수 있다.

참조

외부 링크

• Wiktionary에서 부정성의 사전 정의
• 벤자민 브라운, '유대인 정치 신학 - 사례 연구로서의 다아트 도라의 교리'